• Rating classes

  • PPP+ - Excellent (90, 100)
  • PPP - Very Good (80, 89)
  • PP+ - Good (60, 79)
  • PP - Satisfactory (50, 59)
  • P+ - Weak (40, 49)
  • P - Poor (20, 39)
  • F - Fallible (1, 19)

Financial situation

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Territorial distribution of the rating

Rating class ND - Unavailable F - Fallible P - Poor P+ - Weak PP - Satisfactory PP+ - Good PPP - Very Good PPP+ - Excellent ND - Unavailable F - Fallible P - Poor P+ - Weak PP - Satisfactory PP+ - Good PPP - Very Good PPP+ - Excellent ND - Unavailable F - Fallible P - Poor P+ - Weak PP - Satisfactory PP+ - Good PPP - Very Good PPP+ - Excellent
North 0 0 1 0 3 5 0 0
Center 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0
South 0 3 2 1 2 0 0 0

Distribution of Public Administrations with respect to the rating class

Rating class Number of administrations
ND - Unavailable 0
F - Fallible 3
P - Poor 3
P+ - Weak 2
PP - Satisfactory 6
PP+ - Good 7
PPP - Very Good 0
PPP+ - Excellent 0

Benchmark score

79/100
Average score of the Public Administrations
49/100
Worst score
Molise
Sicilia
6/100

Public Administrations Ranking

Public Administration Score Rating class
Emilia-Romagna 79 5 | PP+ - Good
Lombardia 68 5 | PP+ - Good
Umbria 66 5 | PP+ - Good
Veneto 66 5 | PP+ - Good
Marche 65 5 | PP+ - Good
P.A. Bolzano 63 5 | PP+ - Good
Friuli-Venezia Giulia 60 5 | PP+ - Good
P.A. Trento 59 4 | PP - Satisfactory
Puglia 59 4 | PP - Satisfactory
Piemonte 56 4 | PP - Satisfactory
Toscana 56 4 | PP - Satisfactory
Valle d'Aosta 56 4 | PP - Satisfactory
Campania 50 4 | PP - Satisfactory
Abruzzo 44 3 | P+ - Weak
Lazio 44 3 | P+ - Weak
Liguria 39 2 | P - Poor
Sardegna 38 2 | P - Poor
Calabria 37 2 | P - Poor
Basilicata 8 1 | F - Fallible
Molise 6 1 | F - Fallible
Sicilia 6 1 | F - Fallible
Download All data Metadata
Public Administration
Administrative Capacity Index: score
Chronological trend
Rating class
79/100
Trend not available
PP+ - Good

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 90.6313 High score for high values 8 High
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,644.1141 High score for low values 4 Medium
Collection capacity % 79.7659 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending capacity % 86.0671 High score for high values 10 High
Spending rigidity % 1.8638 High score for low values 8 High
Debt per capita € p.c. 264.3724 High score for low values 8 High
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 103.686 High score for high values 4 Medium
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 67.418 High score for low values 4 Medium
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -22.565 High score for high values 4 Medium
EU funds management - effected payments % 103.0 High score for high values 8 High
68/100
Trend not available
PP+ - Good

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 90.5107 High score for high values 8 High
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,448.1414 High score for low values 8 High
Collection capacity % 75.0889 High score for high values 1 Low
Spending capacity % 78.7859 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending rigidity % 0.9151 High score for low values 8 High
Debt per capita € p.c. 170.3592 High score for low values 8 High
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.01 High score for low values 4 Medium
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 102.1297 High score for high values 1 Low
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 41.1301 High score for low values 8 High
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. 0.0298 High score for high values 8 High
EU funds management - effected payments % 59.0 High score for high values 1 Low
66/100
Trend not available
PP+ - Good

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 88.4052 High score for high values 4 Medium
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,651.3224 High score for low values 4 Medium
Collection capacity % 80.1865 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending capacity % 81.3947 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending rigidity % 2.8413 High score for low values 4 Medium
Debt per capita € p.c. 606.6779 High score for low values 4 Medium
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 103.9894 High score for high values 4 Medium
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 59.7109 High score for low values 8 High
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. 0.9454 High score for high values 8 High
EU funds management - effected payments % 65.0 High score for high values 4 Medium
66/100
Trend not available
PP+ - Good

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 87.3195 High score for high values 4 Medium
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,510.258 High score for low values 4 Medium
Collection capacity % 77.3972 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending capacity % 82.2581 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending rigidity % 1.7446 High score for low values 8 High
Debt per capita € p.c. 503.0634 High score for low values 4 Medium
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 105.7497 High score for high values 4 Medium
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 75.8041 High score for low values 4 Medium
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. 1.4673 High score for high values 8 High
EU funds management - effected payments % 74.0 High score for high values 4 Medium
65/100
Trend not available
PP+ - Good

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 84.8489 High score for high values 4 Medium
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,462.1884 High score for low values 8 High
Collection capacity % 82.085 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending capacity % 84.7719 High score for high values 10 High
Spending rigidity % 2.978 High score for low values 4 Medium
Debt per capita € p.c. 428.6371 High score for low values 8 High
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.4 High score for low values 1 Low
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 107.8813 High score for high values 4 Medium
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 67.5933 High score for low values 4 Medium
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. 0.0 High score for high values 8 High
EU funds management - effected payments % 53.0 High score for high values 1 Low
63/100
Trend not available
PP+ - Good

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 88.3638 High score for high values 4 Medium
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 9,665.7913 High score for low values 1 Low
Collection capacity % 93.0501 High score for high values 10 High
Spending capacity % 85.5735 High score for high values 10 High
Spending rigidity % 19.9591 High score for low values 1 Low
Debt per capita € p.c. 692.5697 High score for low values 4 Medium
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.05 High score for low values 4 Medium
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 117.7005 High score for high values 8 High
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 58.396 High score for low values 8 High
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 14.0441 High score for low values 4 Medium
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -579.5787 High score for high values 1 Low
EU funds management - effected payments % 85.0 High score for high values 8 High
60/100
Trend not available
PP+ - Good

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 88.4496 High score for high values 4 Medium
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 5,479.5636 High score for low values 1 Low
Collection capacity % 91.3198 High score for high values 10 High
Spending capacity % 86.3983 High score for high values 10 High
Spending rigidity % 3.4521 High score for low values 4 Medium
Debt per capita € p.c. 434.9259 High score for low values 8 High
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.03 High score for low values 4 Medium
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 127.8519 High score for high values 8 High
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 89.3311 High score for low values 1 Low
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 16.9509 High score for low values 1 Low
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -76.0542 High score for high values 1 Low
EU funds management - effected payments % 101.0 High score for high values 8 High
59/100
Trend not available
PP - Satisfactory

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 94.0294 High score for high values 8 High
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 8,816.3699 High score for low values 1 Low
Collection capacity % 95.7583 High score for high values 10 High
Spending capacity % 78.9959 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending rigidity % 14.5759 High score for low values 1 Low
Debt per capita € p.c. 154.7703 High score for low values 8 High
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.03 High score for low values 4 Medium
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 132.3245 High score for high values 8 High
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 78.8296 High score for low values 1 Low
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -440.7012 High score for high values 1 Low
EU funds management - effected payments % 68.0 High score for high values 4 Medium
59/100
Trend not available
PP - Satisfactory

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 64.3001 High score for high values 1 Low
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 1,857.4385 High score for low values 8 High
Collection capacity % 72.797 High score for high values 1 Low
Spending capacity % 74.0105 High score for high values 1 Low
Spending rigidity % 1.8255 High score for low values 8 High
Debt per capita € p.c. 312.9039 High score for low values 8 High
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.07 High score for low values 4 Medium
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 103.3577 High score for high values 4 Medium
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 68.1248 High score for low values 4 Medium
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -38.1515 High score for high values 4 Medium
EU funds management - effected payments % 98.0 High score for high values 8 High
56/100
Trend not available
PP - Satisfactory

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 85.0874 High score for high values 4 Medium
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,511.0673 High score for low values 4 Medium
Collection capacity % 78.9924 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending capacity % 78.4171 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending rigidity % 3.8155 High score for low values 4 Medium
Debt per capita € p.c. 2,088.6753 High score for low values 1 Low
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 103.3499 High score for high values 4 Medium
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 56.4906 High score for low values 8 High
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -6.5765 High score for high values 4 Medium
EU funds management - effected payments % 60.0 High score for high values 1 Low
56/100
Trend not available
PP - Satisfactory

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 86.6143 High score for high values 4 Medium
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,573.3958 High score for low values 4 Medium
Collection capacity % 81.1812 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending capacity % 79.9916 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending rigidity % 2.4737 High score for low values 8 High
Debt per capita € p.c. 565.4221 High score for low values 4 Medium
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 103.4052 High score for high values 4 Medium
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 82.0368 High score for low values 1 Low
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 29.3721 High score for low values 1 Low
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -20.8635 High score for high values 4 Medium
EU funds management - effected payments % 87.0 High score for high values 8 High
56/100
Trend not available
PP - Satisfactory

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 94.6429 High score for high values 8 High
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 11,564.221 High score for low values 1 Low
Collection capacity % 78.7671 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending capacity % 90.604 High score for high values 10 High
Spending rigidity % 16.7483 High score for low values 1 Low
Debt per capita € p.c. 1,183.0344 High score for low values 1 Low
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.03 High score for low values 4 Medium
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 129.7283 High score for high values 8 High
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 84.642 High score for low values 1 Low
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -328.8179 High score for high values 1 Low
EU funds management - effected payments % 111.0 High score for high values 8 High
50/100
Trend not available
PP - Satisfactory

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 87.5357 High score for high values 4 Medium
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,423.2846 High score for low values 8 High
Collection capacity % 81.6249 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending capacity % 77.5236 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending rigidity % 3.2185 High score for low values 4 Medium
Debt per capita € p.c. 1,410.0509 High score for low values 1 Low
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.28 High score for low values 1 Low
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 97.2523 High score for high values 1 Low
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 64.0248 High score for low values 4 Medium
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. 1.406 High score for high values 8 High
EU funds management - effected payments % 60.0 High score for high values 1 Low
44/100
Trend not available
P+ - Weak

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 86.6458 High score for high values 4 Medium
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,599.1241 High score for low values 4 Medium
Collection capacity % 68.6766 High score for high values 1 Low
Spending capacity % 71.6436 High score for high values 1 Low
Spending rigidity % 2.2903 High score for low values 8 High
Debt per capita € p.c. 819.6601 High score for low values 4 Medium
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.57 High score for low values 1 Low
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 103.7273 High score for high values 4 Medium
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 64.5598 High score for low values 4 Medium
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -5.3816 High score for high values 4 Medium
EU funds management - effected payments % 56.0 High score for high values 1 Low
44/100
Trend not available
P+ - Weak

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 89.7924 High score for high values 8 High
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,693.4561 High score for low values 4 Medium
Collection capacity % 82.1748 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending capacity % 85.0277 High score for high values 10 High
Spending rigidity % 12.8044 High score for low values 1 Low
Debt per capita € p.c. 3,920.4352 High score for low values 1 Low
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.17 High score for low values 1 Low
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 96.4693 High score for high values 1 Low
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 68.5204 High score for low values 4 Medium
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 220.0531 High score for low values 1 Low
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -38.9449 High score for high values 4 Medium
EU funds management - effected payments % 80.0 High score for high values 4 Medium
39/100
Trend not available
P - Poor

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 83.7537 High score for high values 1 Low
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,653.7518 High score for low values 4 Medium
Collection capacity % 79.2851 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending capacity % 81.7347 High score for high values 5 Medium
Spending rigidity % 7.0288 High score for low values 4 Medium
Debt per capita € p.c. 441.4135 High score for low values 4 Medium
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 0.0 High score for low values 8 High
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 101.2605 High score for high values 1 Low
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 87.4273 High score for low values 1 Low
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 35.199 High score for low values 1 Low
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -43.3206 High score for high values 1 Low
EU funds management - effected payments % 69.0 High score for high values 4 Medium
38/100
Trend not available
P - Poor

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 88.9966 High score for high values 4 Medium
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 5,022.5085 High score for low values 1 Low
Collection capacity % 84.2036 High score for high values 10 High
Spending capacity % 75.7545 High score for high values 1 Low
Spending rigidity % 5.3933 High score for low values 4 Medium
Debt per capita € p.c. 834.4892 High score for low values 4 Medium
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 110.4284 High score for high values 4 Medium
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 84.7948 High score for low values 1 Low
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 6.2239 High score for low values 4 Medium
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -96.6862 High score for high values 1 Low
EU funds management - effected payments % 75.0 High score for high values 4 Medium
37/100
Trend not available
P - Poor

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % 82.0689 High score for high values 1 Low
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. 2,461.2152 High score for low values 8 High
Collection capacity % 72.0146 High score for high values 1 Low
Spending capacity % 67.721 High score for high values 1 Low
Spending rigidity % 2.9847 High score for low values 4 Medium
Debt per capita € p.c. 713.6034 High score for low values 4 Medium
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % 106.0569 High score for high values 4 Medium
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % 54.1132 High score for low values 8 High
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % 6.6825 High score for low values 4 Medium
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. 76.2439 High score for high values 1 Low
EU funds management - effected payments % 58.0 High score for high values 1 Low
8/100
Trend not available
F - Fallible

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Collection capacity % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
Spending capacity % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
Spending rigidity % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Debt per capita € p.c. n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -18.4518 High score for high values 4 Medium
EU funds management - effected payments % 76.0 High score for high values 4 Medium
6/100
Trend not available
F - Fallible

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Collection capacity % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
Spending capacity % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
Spending rigidity % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Debt per capita € p.c. n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 2.87 High score for low values 1 Low
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -150.1071 High score for high values 1 Low
EU funds management - effected payments % 67.0 High score for high values 4 Medium
6/100
Trend not available
F - Fallible

Indicators of the macro-indicator - Financial situation

Indicator name Unit of measure Value Scoring criteria Score Evaluation of the indicator
Financial autonomy % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
Financial pressure per capita € p.c. n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Collection capacity % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
Spending capacity % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
Spending rigidity % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Debt per capita € p.c. n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Off-budget debts recognized and financed % 1.17 High score for low values 1 Low
Coverage of current expenditure and loan repayments through current revenues % n.d. High score for high values 0 N.A.
New liabilities generated in the current period on the current accumulated liabilities % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Capital account expenditure financed by loans and bonds % n.d. High score for low values 0 N.A.
Deficit/surplus on health expenditure per capita € p.c. -8.2022 High score for high values 4 Medium
EU funds management - effected payments % 59.0 High score for high values 1 Low